Practical 

School 
Problems 



jMarcb 
1902 



Practical School Problems 



EDITED BY 



JOSEPH S. TAYLOR, Pd.D. 

Principal Public School ig, Manhattan Borough, New York City 



Vol. L, Part i. 



y^ PUBLISHED BY THE 

Society for the Study of Practical School Problems 

New York, March, 1902 



THE Ltl»l»A«Y #r 

Two OopiM Receive* 

APR. 22' >y^2 

CorYHi««r enTH* 
CLASS O^XXa N;.. 

COPY a 



.T7 



Copyright, 1902, by 
THE SOCIETY FOR THE STUDY OF PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 



PREFACE 

The papers published in the following pages all deal with the 
problem of English in the elementary school. Dr. Maxwell's 
masterly treatment of several phases of composition writing has 
already stimulated to better methods the hundreds of principals and 
teachers who heard its oral delivery before the Society for the Study 
of Practical School Problems. Its publication herewith is destined 
to influence for good every school within the borders of the Greater 
City and, we trust, many schools outside those limits. 

Superintendent Meleney's exposition of the English in our 
Course of Study will be welcomed by every progressive principal 
in the city of New York. 

Miss Arnold is an acknowledged authority on English-teaching. 
The contents of her paper were delivered as an extemporaneous 
lecture before the Society, and are here printed from stenographic 
notes made by our Recording Secretary. The reader will be par- 
ticularly interested in Miss Arnold's insistence upon oral drill as a 
necessary preparation for written work. Equally valuable is her 
suggestion that only the more flagrant errors of form be corrected 
in each class, and that these be selected from conversations and com- 
positions, rather than from books. 

The outline on Grammar has been in use in Public School 19 
(Manhattan) for three years, and in a limited number of other 
schools for the same time. It has not hitherto been available, 
although many teachers and principals have applied for copies. At 
their request the Society is reprinting the paper in the present form. 

J. S. T. 

Public School 19, 344 East Fourteenth Street, 
New York, February 15, 1902. 



OFFICERS 

President, John Dwyer. 

First Vice-President, Hannah W. DeMilt. 

Second Vice-President, Mary A. Magovern. 

Recording Secretary, I. Edwin Goldwasser. 

Corresponding Secretary, Edward D. Stryker. 

Treasurer, Joseph S. Taylor. 

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 

The Six Officers, ex officio. 

Edwin A. Daniels. 

William F. O'Callaghan. 

Edward W. Stitt. 

Mary R. Davis. 

William C. Hess. 

George H. Chatfield. 

Josephine E. Rogers. 

Thomas J. Boyle. 

Elijah D. Clark. 

MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE 

Joseph S. Taylor. 

Mary A. Magovern. 

John P. Conroy. 

James M. Kieran. 

Alida S. Williams. 

Martha Adler. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Composition 9 

William H. Maxwell, Ph.D., 
Superintendent of Schools, New York City. 

Language-Teaching 17 

Clarence E. Meleney, 
District Superintendent of Schools, Manhattan Borough. 

The Various Phases of Language-Teaching . • S^ 
Sarah Louise Arnold, Boston. 

Analysis of Course in Sentence-Study and GraM" 

mar for Graded Schools 61 

Joseph S. Taylor, Pd.D., 

Principal P. S. 19, Manhattan Borough. 



COMPOSITION* 

By William H. Maxwell, Ph.D., 

Superintendent of Schools, Ne-w York City 

The discussion is concerned chiefly with two points : 

{a) The use of models in the seventh and eighth years; 

{b) The correction of children's compositions. 

But, by way of introduction to these main topics, it is necessary 
to run over very briefly the kind of work to be done during the first 
six years. 

L ORAL COMPOSITION 

Oral composition is the natural beginning of the subject. This 
may take the following forms: 

{a) All answers to questions in the class room should be required 

in complete statements. If the question is, "How many are five 

and three ? " do not take "eight" for an answer, but insist on, 

"Five and three are eight." If the question is, "What is the 

capital of New York ? " the answer must be, "The capital of 

New York is Albany." The use of a complete sentence as the 

* The following is an abstract written by the Editor from long-hand notes 

taken by himself during the delivery of Dr. Maxwell's address. Our Recording 

Secretary took stenographic notes of it, from which he has written a complete 

report. This has been for some time in the Superintendent's hands for revision, 

but, owing to the enormous pressure of work incident to the inauguration of the 

new Educational Charter, he has been unable to undertake this editorial work. 

In order that the publication of the pamphlet may be no longer delayed, the Editor 

has assumed the responsibility of publishing this authorized abstract. In the 

next issue of " Practical School Problems" we hope to print the complete address, 

properly revised by the author. 

J. S. T. 



lo PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 

expression of a thought should be taught from the first day of school. 
In our adult life we properly abbreviate sentences to save time and 
effort; but in language training the case is different. Here w^e 
must insist upon the complete form so that the pupil may have it 
thoroughly impressed upon his mind. Moreover, English is to many 
of our children a foreign language, and every good teacher of a 
foreign language insists upon complete statements. 

{b) Another subject for oral composition is the contents of the 
reading lesson. 

(c) A third form is the telling or reading of fairy tales and 
stories. The gift of story telling is one of priceless value to a 
teacher. Children should be trained to give back such stories in 
an abridged form (abstract). 

(d^ Another valuable exercise is the description of processes in 
arithmetic and manual training. Such descriptions should be brief 
and informal, and must not in any case be allowed to degenerate 
into formulas committed to memory; for when this is the case, 
children are no longer composing, but reciting parrot-fashion. 

{e) A very valuable exercise is found in the separation of sen- 
tences from the grade reading into complete subjects and complete 
predicates. We need not necessarily use these terms, but from the 
third year upward all children should get constant practice in this 
exercise. In this way is formed the habit of judging sentences by 
the standard of their essential parts, and children will then be able 
to criticise their own compositions. 

(y) Another drill in oral composition is the recitation of good 
prose and poetry. Teachers are prone to limit their selections to 
poetry, but for the language side of these drills prose is as essential 
as poetry. 

(^) Finally, a good drill in oral composition is afforded by exer- 
cises in explaining the meaning of words. The teacher should 
remember that putting words into sentences is not a method of 



COMPOSITION 1 1 

teaching the meaning of words, but a method of determining 
whether the meaning of a word is known. (Read Bain's "Science 
of Education.") 

In all these conversations the aim must be to find easy subject- 
matter, confined within the limit of the child's experience. Con- 
stant watchfulness is required to keep children from falling into the 
'*and" habit, the most dreadful malady to which young writers 
and speakers are subject. 

n. WRITTEN COMPOSITION 

(a) The first and simplest form of composition is the old-fash- 
ioned but much neglected exercise in copying out of the reader. If 
this is done with absolute accuracy as to spelling, punctuation, 
capitals, etc., it is good language training. 

(^) Dictation. This is a test of something previously taught. 
Hence, whatever is dictated should first have been copied or other- 
wise studied. Never dictate an entirely new selection. The chief 
use of this exercise is drill in mental alertness, spelling, capitals, 
and punctuation. Be careful not to dictate too rapidly, nor yet too 
slov/ly. If the time allowed is too long, no alertness is cultivated. 
If the time is too short, failure and discouragement are the result. 

(f) A third form of written composition is the formation of 
sentences. The models upon which such sentences should be based 
were formulated by the Germans. The following list is found to 
exhaust the possibilities of construction in the simple sentence : 

(i) What things do. The dog barks. 

(2) What is done to a thing. The tree is shaken. 

(3) Of what quality things are. The rose is red. 

(4) What things are. Baseball is a game. 

(5) What things do to things. The cow eats grass. 

Infinite variety may be introduced, as, for instance, by changing 



12 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 

the noun to the singular or plural; by the use of the pronoun; by 
changing the present tense to the past, future, etc. In the sixth 
year a good course of old-fashioned grammar should be introduced, 
and in this the children should have a thorough drill, both of the 
analytic and synthetic kind. 

(</) The fourth form of written composition consists of stories, 
descriptions, and narratives, based chiefly on observation. 

m. THE USE OF MODELS IN SEVENTH AND EIGHTH YEARS 

The normal conditions of writing are these : 

{a) The writer has something he wishes to say. 

(/») He assumes that some one is interested in what he writes. 

In the class room these conditions are naturally not present. 
Hence the teacher must create them. This he can do — 

{a) By limiting the composition to subjects that children know. 

(^) By finding something in literature that shows how common 
things may be made interesting by the way they are treated. 

If, for instance, we take a game played by the children, they 
see nothing particularly interesting in it for a composition. But if 
we read some great writer's description of such a game, they are 
intensely interested, and by skillful handling one can arouse in them 
the feeling, "I have something to say, and some one would like to 
hear it." This audience is the class itself, and it may be made a 
powerful educative force in many ways. 

Biography is full of examples of the value of imitation in learn- 
ing to acquire a style. Johnson recommended the style of Addison 
for this purpose. Franklin followed Johnson's advice. Stevenson 
acknowledges that he employed a similar method. 

(J) How to Select a Model 

(a) The first requisite is that it must possess literary value. 
Teachers should not, as a rule, undertake to manufacture models. 



COMPOSITION 13 

(b) Each model should be in itself complete. 

{c) Models should not be too long ; five hundred words should 
be the maximum. 

{d) The model should appeal directly to the child's interest 
and knowledge. 

(e) It must illustrate either exposition, description, or narration. 

(2) How to Use the Model 

(a) Every pupil must himself read the model. Even a black- 
board copy is not near enough to the child. He should hold it in 
his hand, so that he may study it at close range. 

{b) By some way we must get the pupil to appreciate the merit 
of the model. 

(c) Each model is to be selected for one special characteristic. 
This point is to be impressed upon the pupil. Not more than one 
characteristic is to be looked for in any one specimen. Among 
the things to look for are clearness, choice of words, and in every 
instance the plan that was in the writer's mind (outline). 

(3) How to Imitate the Model 

(a) After studying the model, put it aside, and let the children 
reproduce it (not paraphrase it) as nearly as they can. 

(b) Let each write an imitation of it on a kindred subject. If 
the model describes a man, the imitation will describe another man. 
If the model is a fable, let the class invent a similar fable. If the 
letter is the model, a similar one is written, or the model is an- 
swered in the appropriate way. 

Here Dr. Maxwell read from the " Hoosier Schoolboy" a 
description of a game, and then he read a number of children's 
compositions describing other games after the manner of the model. 



14 



PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 



The study of this description resulted in the discovery that it is so 
clear that one who never heard of the game could play it after 
reading what the author wrote. Clearness is the excellence to be 
imitated. The plan was discovered to include — 
(i) An introduction. 

(2) A body ; namely, the description. 

(3) A conclusion ; why the game is interesting. 

A Christmas letter from Phillips Brooks revealed the fact that 
one must constantly keep in mind, when writing a letter, the 
person to whom the letter is addressed. The children were then 
requested to write a suitable answer to the letter, drawing upon 
their imagination for the materials. 

The fable of " The Wolf and the Lamb " was used to show 
what the teacher can do to assist children to get the most value 
out of a model. Point out the nature of a fable; also the moral. 
Invent similar fables; as, "The Hen and the Worm," "The Cat 
and the Bird." The teacher may make an imitation to assist the 
class. A very clever one was read. 



IV. PRINCIPLES TO BE OBSERVED IN CORRECTING 
COMPOSITIONS 

In correcting compositions three principles are to be borne 
in mind : 

(a) Children should learn to correct their own errors. That 
is one aim of the lesson. 

{b) They are to learn to correct errors, not in a mechanical 
way, but by using their intelligence. 

(f) They are to look for one thing at a time. 

Children should write often to get the necessary practice. Use 
fifteen minutes to compose and fifteen to correct. The following 
general plan of correcting was suggested : 



COMPOSITION 15 

(i) First have them read for the paragraph structure. 

(2) Then read again for sentence structure. Here refer to 
the grammar; apply the test of subject and predicate; look for 
concords — subject and predicate, pronoun and antecedent, etc. 

(3) Finally examine every word for spelling. 



LANGUAGE- TEACHING 

By Clarence E. Meleney 

Associate Superintendent 

INTRODUCTION 

At a meeting of the Society for the Study of Practical School 
Problems, held in May, 1900, Associate Superintendent C. E. 
Meleney gave an address on " The Content in Language-Teach- 
ing." This was followed, at the succeeding meeting, by another 
address on " Language as a Means of Expression." At this time, 
for want of the original notes, it is impossible to reproduce those 
papers. The subject was taken up by the Superintendent and 
the principals of the group of schools over which he had super- 
vision, with an outline as a basis for the practical working out of 
a graded course in language for the schools of the group. Com- 
mittees of principals spent several months in the formulation and 
discussion of the proposed work in the several grades of the ele- 
mentary schools. Each committee presented the results of its 
study in conferences of the whole; and the reports were formu- 
lated into a general scheme, consisting of an introduction and a 
graded outline of suggested work in language on the expression side. 
The object was to have in these schools a uniform graded work- 
ing-basis for language-teaching, that each principal could use, so 
far as the needs of his school might require. 

Almost a year has elapsed since this was accomplished, and 



1 8 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 

typewritten copies of this outline for language-teaching have been 
in the hands of the principals. After much solicitation on the 
part of the officers of this Society, the Superintendent and the prin- 
cipals of the group of schools have consented to the printing of 
a limited number of copies of the scheme, with the understanding 
that it is not official, not authoritative, but is to be viewed only as 
a contribution to the general discussion of the subject of Language- 
Teaching in our schools — a subject which has occupied so much 
of the thought and study of this Society. 



LANGUAGE -TEACHING 

The work in language must be considered with a view to the 
two uses of language; viz., as a means of getting information, 
and as a means of giving information. 

I. LANGUAGE AS A MEANS OF GETTING INFORMATION 

{. Association. — Pupils must become familiar with the words 
that stand for ideas, so that the sight or hearing of the word will 
instantly call up the idea, and the idea will find expression in 
words. All names of objects, actions, and qualities; all phrases 
and sentences expressing relations, facts, conditions, etc., must be 
taught in connection with the objects, actions, etc. At first all 
these must be objective — present to the senses, perceptive. The 
second set of ideas must be apperceptive; that is, readily under- 
stood by reference to known ideas. 

In the first-year grades the following analysis might be ob- 
served : 

Words, phrases, and sentences representing objects, and rela- 
tions of place, time, manner, and cause, observed through — 

{a) The eye. Also qualities of color, size, and material. 
{b) The ear; as sounds, tones, and movements. 
{c) The touch; as hardness and roughness. 
Later ideas derived from — 

{d ) The senses of taste and smell. 
All these ideas are to be perceived by actual experience; and 



20 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 

the words, phrases, and sentences should be taught at the time of 
such experience. Comparison of objects, qualities, etc., should 
also be made. 

Suggestions 

Teachers should make a careful selection of material from the 
child's own environment. This might be classified under (i) hu- 
man relations, and (2) natural relations. 

They should then prepare a progressive course of lessons deal- 
ing with the above studies. It is not wise to depend always upon 
published charts and reading-books, as the subject-matter may not 
be close to the child's life. When books are introduced, care 
should be taken that all the new ideas contained in the lessons be 
made conscious to the child before the words and sentences are 
used. After words, phrases, and sentences have been properly 
presented, and the association established, it will be necessary to 
institute drill-work for practice in thinking and in pronunciation. 
All words, phrases, and many short sentences should be presented 
on teachers' charts and cards, to be placed before the class for 
drill. Familiarity will come from oral exercises from the charts, 
and from frequent copying by the pupils. Children should be 
trained to recognize these forms at a glance, to hold them in the 
mind, and to recite them without looking on the written or printed 
form. 

While this work in association is going on, children should 
commit to memory rhymes and poems. The main object of this 
is to supply words that the children will love to say over and over 
again for the pleasure of the rhythm ; and they will thus acquire 
facility in correct pronunciation. It is not necessary here to make 
this association. The thousands of foreign-speaking children need 
this to aid them in mastering English sounds and words. Some 
verses of this kind should be written on charts or on the board, 
after the first few months of school, for practice in making the 
association between the oral and the written expression. 

2. Memory. — The memory is strengthened by exercises simi- 
lar to those above mentioned, by reproducing orally the words, the 
phrases and rhymes, and by frequent copying. Teachers will ask 
questions about facts and stories told and read. Exercises in 
repeating whole sentences from the reading-lesson, after silent 
study of the same, should be given constantly. 



LANG UAGE- TEACHING 2 1 

3* Imagination* — This power must be cultivated by — 

{a) Stories and fables treating of persons, places, things, 
and events that come within the range of the 
child's experience; of home life; of good con- 
duct; of happy relations with society and life. 
The selection should be made from the best authors 
and with great care. 
{b) Reference to best authors; as. Miss Poulsson's " In 
the Child's World," Miss Badlam's "Lan- 
guage and Reading," Hans Christian Andersen's 
" Stories," yEsop's " Fables," etc. 
4. Ear-Training. — After a good beginning has been made in 
teaching the children to get simple ideas and stories, attention 
should be directed to cultivating correct hearing. Teachers should 
pronounce clearly and deliberately each word, phrase, sentence, 
and the elementary sounds of words. The charts above referred 
to may be used for these exercises. Teachers should read with 
deliberation and good natural expression, but be careful not to 
indulge in dramatic or overdrawn inflection or artificial voice-tones. 
Acute and accurate ear-perception is essential to correct speech. 
Criticism of incorrect pronunciation should be avoided. Children 
will learn better by imitation of correct models; and teachers 
should be careful always to use pure and correct English. The 
exercises under this division of the work are — 

(a) Pronouncing clearly and slowly words, phrases, and 

short sentences, followed by individual and class 
drill. 

(b) Careful phrasing of sentences. 
{c) Natural tone and inflection. 
{d^ Simple questions and answers, 
(e) Colloquial expressions. 
(/")Easy conversation. 



22 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 

{A Model reading by teacher. 

{h) Recitation of rhymes and poetry. 

It) Reading of stories by the teacher for the purpose of 

giving information and of affording pleasure. 
5. Eye-Training. — Children should be trained to — 

(a) Recognize instantly words, phrases, and sentences 

from board, charts, cards, and books. Words, in 

columns, should be arranged in subject-groups and 

in phonetic-groups. 
{f) Read silently whole sentences, 
(r) See the syllables and letters of a word quickly, so as 

to write the word as a whole. 

n. LANGUAGE AS A MEANS OF GIVING INFORMATION 

X* Spoken Language* — Correct oral speech is more important 
than written language as a means of conveying thought, because — 
(a) It is more generally employed. 
(^) It prepares for written expression. 
The first object to be attained is fluency, with readiness and 
willingness to speak. 

The second object is the correct form of words and sentences. 
The exercises employed for the development of correct speech 



are- 



(a) Those used in connection with ear and eye training, 
above mentioned, to cultivate correct articulation. 

(h) Speaking in sentences the thoughts derived from hear- 
ing, seeing, feeling, and imagination. 

(c) Repeating fluently and naturally sentences from a 
reading-lesson. 

(^) Telling the facts of a paragraph or story. 

(e) Reciting from memory poetry or prose. 

(y) Conversation. 



LANG VAGE- TEACHING 23 

2. Written Langfuage. — The ends to be kept in view are — 

(a) Readiness in writing, willingness to write, and enjoy- 

ment of writing. 

(b) Correctness of form, including correct spelling; cor- 

rectness of phrase and sentence forms in all par- 
ticulars; and legibility of penmanship. 
The exercises to be employed are — 

(a) Copying (eye and hand training) words, phrases, 
and sentences from board, charts, cards, and 
books (copy-books or readers). This should begin 
when the teacher writes the first word on the 
board, and should continue throughout the pri- 
mary grades and as long as new forms are taught. 
From the first, children should use the blackboard, 
and write with the arm movement, in large, plain 
forms. 

(b\ Dictation (ear, thought, and hand training) of words, 
phrases, and sentences which have been written 
previously, during study. 

Method 

After preparation by study and copying — 

1. Teacher should read the words, phrase, or sentence as a 
unit. 

2. Children should repeat mentally. 

3. Pupils should write. 

The unit should be read but once or twice by the teacher. 
Dictation exercises may begin during the second-year grade (2a), 
and should be given daily throughout the elementary course. 

{c) Writing from Memory (thought and hand training) 
words, phrases, and sentences in the words of the 
author. 



24 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 



Method 

Pupils should — 

1. Read the selections, and commit them to memory. 

2. Repeat mentally. 

3. Write. 

These exercises should be commenced in the second year, and 
continue throughout the course. 



Sugfgfestions 

Dictation and memory exercises should be short and interest- 
ing, and should be done quickly and neatly. Children should be 
taught to correct their own errors, and to rewrite, if necessary. 
Few of the exercises should be preserved. The end is accom- 
plished when the work is well done. Whole sets may be kept for 
the purpose of enabling the pupils to note their own progress from 
month to month. Teachers should make more comments on good 
work than on errors to be criticised. All new words and gram- 
matical forms should be taught by copying, and tested by dictation 
and memory writing. 

(d\ Writing from Outline^ composition, in language of 
the pupils or authors, the substance of the sen- 
tence, the paragraph, and, in higher grades, the 
story. 

Method 

1. Teacher should read or narrate, or pupils should read silently 
or orally. 

2. Teacher and class should agree upon points to be written 
on board. 

3. Pupils should compose a sentence on each point mentally. 

4. Pupils should write in complete sentences. 

5. Some pupils should read their sentences. 

6. Suggestions and comments should be made by pupils and 
teacher. 

7. Pupils should correct errors. 



LANG UAGE- TEACHING 25 

Sugfgestions 

The subject-matter should be interesting, thoroughly under- 
stood, and written under the impulse aroused by interest when fresh 
in the mind. It is not supposed that all errors in a given exercise 
should be corrected. Pupils should be encouraged to improve any 
exercise. The teacher should give praise rather for the thought 
expressed and the naturalness and spirit of the expression than for 
the form. This work may begin in the third year, and should be 
continued throughout the course. The basis may be a reading- 
lesson, a fable or story, a picture, natural objects, or the child's 
experience. 

(e) Original Compositions. The nature of these may be as 
follows : 

(i) Narrative^ based upon events of a story, cir- 
cumstances in a person's life, or circum- 
stances of a child's experience. The 
proper sequence of events should be ob- 
served. 

(2) Descriptive^ based upon study of objects in 

nature; of objects in a city, as buildings 
or works of construction ; of actions ; or 
of processes. Comparison of qualities or 
characteristics may be made. 

(3) Imaginative^ either narrative or descriptive. 

Suggestions 

The subject-matter of all compositions should be selected from 
the child's knowledge, preferably from subjects in the course of 
study. The aim should be to use well-known facts and to help fix 
those facts by giving expression to them. The compositions 
should be short, and should be written when the subject is fresh in 
the mind. The writing of compositions should be begun by the 
third year, and should be continued throughout the course. There 
should be very little criticising, and much appreciation of effort. 



26 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 

The following gives the plan of work in written language by 
grades, so far as it relates to form. 



TYPES OF WRITTEN FORMS BY GRADES 

Grade \a, 

J. Punctuation and Capitals. — i. The period and the ques- 
tion-mark. 2. Capitals — at the beginning of a sentence, the pro- 
noun " I," the initial letters of persons' names. 

2. Word Forms. — Words learned in the reading-lessons, singu- 
lar and plural nouns, simple sentences. 

3. Letter Forms. — Attention should be directed to those forms 
that present difficulty when words are written. 

Grade Jb 

\* Punctuation and Capitals. — The same as in Grade la. 

2. Word Forms. — The same as in Grade la; also personal 
pronouns, singular and plural; forms of the verb "to be" and 
other common verbs in agreement with singular and plural subjects ; 
use of " a " and " an " ; possessive form of singular nouns. 

3. Letter Forms. — All the small letters and such of the capitals 
as are in common use by children of this grade. 

Grade 2a 

J. Punctuation and Capitals. — i. First use of comma. 2. Cap- 
itals in days of week, in names of months, and in names of places. 

2. Word Forms. — Abbreviations observed in reading-lessons, 
as, Mr., Mrs. ; the use of prepositions in phrases. 

3. Letter Forms. — All the capital letters found in lessdhs. 



LANGUAGE-TEJCHING 27 

Grade 2b 

J. Punctuation and Capitals. — i. Use of comma continued. 
2. Capitals used in poetry. 

2. Word Forms. — Irregular plurals, as, ' ' feet, " " teeth ' * ; the 
past tense of common verbs; the use of adverbs. 

3. Letter Forms* — All capital letters. 

Grade 3a 

Observe in the reading-lessons the technical forms mentioned 
below. Pupils should become familiar with them, and acquire the 
habit of using them correctly. To acquire this habit, they should 
copy them, write them from memory and from dictation, and use 
them in their own compositions. 

J. Capitals. — At the beginning of a sentence; at the beginning 
of each line of poetry; the pronoun "I"; initials of persons' 
names ; initials of names of places, days of week, and months of 
the year; the first letter of the word beginning a direct quotation. 

2. Punctuation. — Period or question-mark at end of sentence, 
period after abbreviation, quotation-marks in undivided quotations, 
comma with quotation. 

3. Abbreviations. — Mr., Mrs., title with teacher's name, street, 
avenue, New York. 

4. W^ord Forms. — Singular nouns; plurals in "s"; a few 
common plurals, like " teeth," " feet " ; singular possessive forms; 
verb forms in common use, as, " is, are," " was, were," " has, 
have," in agreement with subjects. 

5. Letter Forms. — All small and capital letters in common use. 

6. The Sentence. — Pupils should recognize the complete sen- 
tence, and write it as a whole. 

7. The Paragraph* — Pupils should recognize paragraphs in 



28 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 

reading-lessons ; they should observe the relation of the sentences, 
and should write a paragraph. 

8. A Letter. — Observe and study a model letter, copy it, and 
write it from dictation and from memory. 

The reading-lessons will furnish all the models of form above 
mentioned. 

Method 

1. Study the model as to punctuation, spelling of words, and 
agreement of subject and predicate (without using these technical 
terms). 

2. Memorize it by repetition orally. 

3. Memorize it by copying, 

4. Write it from dictation. 

5. Write it from memory. 

6. Compare it with the original, and correct any mistakes. 

It is not expected that the reading-lesson is to be interrupted 
by study of the sentences. After each reading-lesson the teacher 
should select one or more easy sentences that illustrate one or more 
of the forms that need to be taught. By using one, or at most 
a few, each day, all the forms will be easily taught, and the habit 
of using them correctly will become established. 

Grade 3b 

Note the items mentioned for the previous grade, 
\* Capitals. — The same as in Grade 3a, 

2. Punctuation. — The same as in Grade 3a ; the use of the 
comma in separating parts of the sentence. 

3. Abbreviations. — A.M.; P.M.; abbreviations of names of 
months in dates. 

4. Contfactions. — "I'm," "you're," as found in reading- 
lessons. 

5. Word Forms. — Plurals in " es " and " ies " ; some com- 
mon irregular plurals as they occur in reading-lessons; also the 
apostrophe in singular possessives and in contractions ; pronouns in 



LJNG UAGE- TEACHING. 29 

common use ; agreement of common verbs, in singular and plural, 
with their subjects. 

6. Typical Fofms. — Paragraph, letter, and composition, to be 
copied, and written from memory and from dictation. 

Suggestions 

The above technical forms of written language are mentioned 
as studies of forms which the pupils will find in reading-lessons, and 
which they will acquire the habit of writing correctly in this grade. 

A few good examples, as they occur in reading-lessons, should 
be studied and written each day. The children should be led to 
see why each example has been selected; that is, what it is to 
illustrate. Some examples might be written on charts, for ready 
reference. This study of form must not be made too exacting. 
The most important language-work should be directed to getting 
thought from the book by silent and oral reading, and by reproduc- 
ing readily and fluently in speech, and occasionally in writing. 
All written efforts of this kind should be very brief. There should 
be very little criticism as to the technical forms, the object being 
to induce freedom of expression. 

Grade 4a 

In this and the following grades simple compositions and letters 
are to be written with the aid of outlines. 

J. Informal Compositions should be written almost every day, 
immediately following some interesting lesson on history, geog- 
raphy, literature, or picture-study. Not more than ten minutes 
should be allowed. The teacher should suggest the subject; but 
the pupils should be free to write on anything that has impressed 
them favorably. The objects should be (i) reproduction as to 
facts; (2) proper sequence; (3) grammatical form. The method 
should be (i) oral statement of facts in sentences; (2) comments 
and commendation; (3) written sentences; (4) reading by individ- 
ual pupils; (5) comments by teacher or pupil.* 

* These remarks apply equally and progressively to all subsequent grades. 



30 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 

2. The Stated Gjmposition of the Month should be short. 
Criticisms should be directed to one class of errors at a time. 

3, Technical Forms should be reviewed, and new ones taught 
by the graded plan employed in previous grades. Tvpical exam- 
ples of form may be found in reading-lessons. After each reading- 
lesson, one or two good examples should be studied and copied, 
and the pupils should be tested by dictation and memory exercises. 
Reference to the models should be made, when errors are found in 
compositions. 

In this grade the following forms should receive careful atten- 
tion : 

J» Capitals* — Initial letter of proper names, of days of week, 
and of names of months; first letter in quotation j first letter of line 
of poetry. 

2. Punctuation. — Period, interrogation-point, exclamation-point, 
comma, apostrophe, quotation-marks. 

3. Abbreviations. — As they occur in names, in titles, in arith- 
metic, and in geography. 

4. Contractions. — Such simple ones as occur in reading-lessons. 

5. Word Forms. 

(a) Spelling of singular nouns; plurals in " s," " es," 
" ies " ; irregular plurals; as, "men," "chil- 
dren," etc. 

{j?) Spelling of personal pronouns; as, " he, him," " she, 
her," " they, them." 

(r) Common verbs (as, " run, runs," " walk, walks," 
etc.) in agreement with their subjects. 

6. The Sentence. — Pupils should acquire the idea of what a 
sentence is, and should know when it ends, and when another may 
begin. 



LANG UAGE- TEACHING 31 



Suggestions 



As examples are studied and copied, pupils should understand 
what forms are being illustrated. Pupils may also learn to select 
from the reading-lesson good illustrations of form. When errors 
occur in compositions, the pupils making them should be referred 
to the models, and be allowed to make their own corrections. 

Grade 4b 

Teachers will find, in any reading-lesson, examples of forms 
that may be used for purposes of study, by close examination, by 
discussion, and by copying. These may be used also for dictation 
and for memory writing. Some such study should be made each 
day. These forms, by the constant use of models, will become 
strongly impressed upon the minds of the children, who will acquire 
the habit of using them correctly in their compositions. Errors in 
the use of these forms, in compositions, should be noticed by the 
teachers, and the pupils should make their own corrections. 

In this grade, attention should be given to the following forms: 

(* Capitals* 

(a) Beginning a sentence. 

(b) Initial letters of names. 

{c) Initial letters of all proper nouns. 
{d) Initial letter of each line of poetry. 
(e) In titles of composition. 

2. Punctuation. 

(a) Period whenever used. 

(^) Interrogation-point, 

{c) Comma, when separating parts of a sentence, when 

used with a quotation, and when used between 

words in series. 

3. Abbreviations and Contractions. — Those found in reading- 
lessons, in arithmetic, and in geography. 



32 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 

4. Word Forms. 

{a) Plurals of nouns ending in " s," *' es," and " ies " ; 

common irregular plurals. 
(^) Modifications of the personal pronouns, 
(r) Singular possessive of nouns. 
(^) Singular and plural of common verbs in agreement 

with subject in the present tense. 

5. The Sentence* — Pupils should realize the essential feature 
of a sentence. 

6* The Paragraph. — Pupils should learn the essential principle 
of a paragraph — that there should be relation in thought between 
the sentences of a paragraph. Each sentence should be distinct. 

Grade 5a 

L COMPOSITION 
J. Narrative. 

{a\ Study of model. Select a simple narrative from read- 
ing-lesson or supplementary reader, historical or 
biographical. Call attention to number of sub- 
topics and paragraphs ; to the sequence of events 
or facts stated ; to the conditions, environment, or 
place of the story; to the characters mentioned. 
Discuss them briefly and to the point. Write 
headings on board. 

{F) Pupils tell the story orally, following the outline. 

(c) Pupils write the story in brief sentences, paragraph- 
ing according to sub-heads. 

(^) Some pupils read their compositions for comment. 
2. Descriptive. 

{a) Study of a good model of description, testing all of 
the points by examination of the object, if possi- 
ble. Such model may have been written by the 



LANG VAGE- TEACHING 



3^ 



teacher, after examination and discussion of the 
object. 

{b\ Study of an object, with note of points to be men- 
tioned in the description. Write points on board. 

(c) Pupils describe orally the object, following the outline 
on board. 

{d^ Pupils write the description, according to outline, in 
short sentences, observing the paragraphing. 

{e) Some pupils read their compositions for comment and 
discussion. 
3. Letter- Writingf. 

{a) Study of a good model in reading-book, in language 
text-book, or of one prepared by the teacher. 
Note and discuss heading, address, salutation, sig- 
nature, body of letter, subject-matter, sequence of 
points mentioned. 

{l>\ Pupils copy the model. 

(c) Pupils write the model from memory or from dicta- 
tion. 

{d^ Pupils write original letters, after good models have 
been successfully taught. 

{e) Pupils fold letter-paper, and address envelopes. 

Suggestions 

Any of the parts of a letter, or the address on envelope, may 
be used as copying and dictation exercises. 

n. SENTENCE-STUDY 
I. Typical Sentences* 

{ci) Study of a model sentence. Observe and discuss the 
essential parts — the subject and predicate j discuss 
also sentences containing an object. 



^4 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 

(b) Pupils copy the model sentences. Observe the capi- 

tals and punctuation, and note whether the sen- 
tence is declarative or interrogative. 

(c) Pupils write models from memory and from dictation. 

Suggestions 

Occasionally select good simple models from the reading-lesson 
for study, calling attention (i) to what the sentence is about, and 
(2) to what is affirmed or asked. If the essential features are 
noticed, no other parts need be mentioned. Occasionally, longer 
or more difficult sentences may be studied to find the subject, predi- 
cate, and object. 

Select suitable models to be used for review and tests. When 
errors in sentences occur in compositions, pupils should be referred 
to models, and directed to correct their errors by such reference. 
While pupils are learning to write in complete sentences, other 
technicalities should be deferred until the appropriate time. 

2. Capitals and Punctuation. — By this time, pupils should be 
able to use capitals and simple punctuation correctly. Examina- 
tion of dictation, memory, and composition exercises will reveal 
prevailing errors. Such errors should call for typical models 3 for 
example, the use of the comma, interrogation-points, etc., which 
should be given as copy, or as memory or dictation exercises, until 
the correct use is mastered. 
3* Word-Study. 

(a) Spelling of nouns in singular and plural ; spelling of 
nouns in common use, especially those ending in 
J, jr, z, shy and soft ch and y. 
(F) Spelling of verbs in singular and plural in agreement 
with their subjects. 

(c) Spelling of possessives in singular and plural j use of 

apostrophe. 

(d) Spelling of proper names ; use of capitals. 



LANGUAGE-TEACHING 35 

(e) Study of prefixes and suffixes. 

(y) Study of meaning of words from their connection. 
This study should be confined to words in com- 
mon use. 

Suggestions 

Teachers should call attention to good models when found in 
reading-lessons. It would be well to keep models of all type forms 
on charts, for ready reference when pupils are writing compositions, 
or correcting their errors. Words studied under these heads should 
be in sentences or phrases. 

In this grade and in 5b the object should be to have the pupils 
become so familiar with the common use of words studied, that 
they will use them correctly. The use of synonyms and definitions 
should be deferred to later grades. Teachers should be satisfied if 
pupils use correctly the words and phrases of the author, and should 
not insist on the children substituting their own words to express 
the same idea. Choice new words and phrases should be incor- 
porated into the conversation of teacher and pupils until the habit 
of using them becomes established. The oral use will be acquired 
before the written use, and in greater measure; but the written use 
should also be encouraged. 

Teachers should note prevailing colloquial errors made by the 
pupils in speech and in writing. The correct forms of such expres- 
sions should be written on charts, and these should be in view of 
the pupils in the class-room, as models for correct speaking and 
writing, until their habitual use has become established. Pupils 
will be interested to see how soon these charts may be stored away 
as having been mastered. 

Grade 5b 

The outline and suggestions given for Grade 5a may be used 
also by teachers in Grade 5b. The work will be the same in kind. 
Some addition to the technical forms used may be made. 

I. COMPOSITION 

J. Narrative. — Stories from reader and from elementary his- 
tories; fables about animals, and others told by the teacher. The 
selection of stories should be carefully made. 



36 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 

2. Descriptive. — Accounts of animals; beasts, birds, fishes, etc., 
or pictures of the same. 

3. Letter- Writing;. — Personal letters, and letters relating the 
experience of pupils. 

Method 

{a) Study of models in respect to form, content, and 

sequence of points. 
(h) Copy of models. 
{/) Dictation or memory writing. 
(d) Writing from outline, based upon models used. 
((?) Corrections by pupils, by reference to models and 

to type forms. 

n. SENTENCE-STUDY 

J, Typical Sentences. — Simple sentences, declarative and inter- 
rogative; subject; predicate; object; attribute; chief word of each 
part; modifiers, adjective and adverb. 

(a) Study of the model. Observe and discuss each part. 
(^) Copy of model. 

(c) Write from memory and from dictation. 
(^) Write original sentences to illustrate. 
{e) Find and discuss sentences in reading-lessons, with 
' reference only to the parts indicated above, and 
for the sense rather than for the grammatical form. 

2. Capitals and Punctuation. — As in previous grades. 

3. Word-Study. 

(d\ Spelling (as in Grade 5a); also some plurals without s ; 
as, "men," "women," "children," "oxen,'* 
"mice." 

(b) Verbs as modified by tense; as, " run, ran," "go, 

went," "jump, jumped," etc., always in sen- 
tences, 
(f) Possessives, singular and plural. 



LAI^G VAGE- TEACHING 37 

(d) Personal pronouns in the nominative, objective, and 
possessive cases; as, "I, me, my," "he, him, 
his," etc., always in sentences. 

(e\ Adjectives and corresponding adverbs, always in sen- 
tences. 

(/") Prefixes and suffixes. 

Suggfestions 

These word-studies are to be taken as parts of sentences, and 
are not to be classed as parts of speech. Teachers should keep 
models on charts, for ready reference. As these words occur very 
often in compositions, and are more frequently misspelled than 
other words, frequent tests of typical phrases and sentences should 
be made. 

Grade 6a 

I. COMPOSITION 
J. Subject-Matter. 

(a) Biography. A typical biographical sketch should be 

studied and written. 
{b) History. 

(c) Geography, descriptive of places and people studied. 
(^) Literature. Good subjects for study and reproduc- 
tion may be selected from reading-lessons. 
• (e) Current events, one or more subjects of public inter- 
est. 
2. Letter-Writing. — Business, social, and personal letters. At- 
tention should be given to (i) heading, (2) address, (3) salutation, 
(4) ending, (5) body of letter, (6) folding, (7) address on en- 
velope. 

Method 

{a) Study of good models. Attention in composition 
should be given to (i) title, (2) outline, (3) para- 
graphs. 



38 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 

(b) Copying of models. 

(f) Writing from dictation and from memory. 

(d) Writing similar original composition or letter. 

(e) Correction by pupils, by comparison with model. 



n. LANGUAGE-FORMS 

J. Sources of Language-Forms 

(a) Reading-books. Models of form of paragraphs, of 

sentences, of punctuation, of parts of sentences, 
of parts of speech, of modifications of word forms, 
may be found in daily reading-lessons. 

(h) Language text-books. The language-books on the 
supply-list for teachers' use contain all the neces- 
sary progressive language-forms to be used. One 
author should be followed throughout a department. 

(f) Pupils' compositions. The teacher will always find 
in the compositions written by the pupils errors 
that will suggest the forms that need to be taught. 
2. Forms to be Mastered. 

(tf) Paragraph — the subject, the related sentences on the 
subject. 

(b) Sentences — a simple sentence, subject, predicate, ob- 

ject, attribute, word-modifiers; a compound sen- 
tence — its parts, connecting words; punctuation. 

(c) Parts of speech: (i) nouns, proper and common, sin- 

gular and plural, possessives; (2) verbs, singular 
and plural, in agreement with subject; (3) adjec- 
tives; (4) adverbs, how formed from adjectives; 
(5) conjunctions; (6) pronouns, personal, singular 
and plural, nominative, objective, and possessive 
cases. 
(</) Word-study. Same as in previous grade. 



LANG UJGE- TEACHING 



Method 



39 



{a\ Study of model, examination and discussion of model 

in print or on blackboard, analysis of form. 
{h) Copy of model, 
(f) Write from dictation. 

(d) Write from memory, or compose similar forms. 

(e) Use in composition; remember to write it correctly. 
(_/*) Corrections by comparison with model. 

DL MEANING AND USE OF WORDS 

Words taught under the title "Meaning and Use" are not to 
be assigned as a lesson until the pupils have become familiar, by 
reading or study, with such words in their proper relation. 

Suggestions 

New words should be taught from the text in which they are 
found, or, if they occur in the instruction and are presented by the 
teacher, they should be written on the board in phrases or in sen- 
tences. Pupils should acquire the common use of new words, and 
should avoid unusual meanings. Encourage the incorporation of 
new words into daily conversation. 

Grade 6b 
I. COMPOSITION AND LETTER-WRITING 

\* Subject-Matter* 

{a) Events of current interest. 

{b\ Impressions of books read ; characters. 

(f) Interpretations of stories or poems. 

(d\ Incidents and characters in the War of the Revolu- 
tion and in the War of 1812. 

{e) Subjects descriptive of geographical features related 
to the grade. 

(f) Personal experiences. 



40 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 

Method 

(a) Study of the subject-matter by reading and discus- 

sion. A story or poem might be read to the class 
by teacher or a pupil, or read silently by the class, 
pupils making notes of points to be used in com- 
position. Pupils should be encouraged to make 
notes of the story or of characters in books read. 
Subjects in history, after recitation and discussion, 
may be used. 

{If) Teacher and pupils should discuss the outlines or 
notes presented by pupils; they should also mod- 
ify, rearrange, etc., and agree upon class outline. 

(c) Pupils should express orally, in sentences, thoughts 
upon the outline. 

(^) Pupils should write the composition or letter. 

{e) Teacher and pupils should correct errors. 

IL MEANING, USE, AND SPELLING OF NEW WORDS 

J. Subject-Matter. 

{a) Reading-lessons of the grade. 

(b) Subjects in course of study. 

(c) Compositions of the pupils. 

Method 

{d\ Study new words in the text; discuss meanings and 
derivations; construct orally sentences showing 
similar use; spell orally; use the dictionary. 
Continue word-study as in previous grades, also 
the study of prefixes and suffixes. Begin study 
of root-stems. 

(F) Write from dictation and from memory. 

(c) Use in conversation and composition. 

m. GRAMMAR 
J. Subject-Matter. 

(a) Typical sentences; simple and easy compound and 
complex sentences — 

I. Selected and written on blackboard. 



LANGUAGE-TEACHING 41 

2. As found in text-book on language. 

3. As found in reading-lessons. 

4. As found in pupils' compositions. 

(b) Parts of sentence — subject, predicate, object, attri- 
bute, adjective modifiers, adverbial modifiers, vv^ord, 
phrase and clause modifiers. 

{c) Parts of speech — 

1. Noun, as common or proper; as in nomina- 

tive, possessive, or objective case. 

2. Personal pronoun in nominative, possessive, 

and objective case; interrogative pronoun 
in nominative, possessive, and objective 
case; relative pronoun. 

3. Verbs, in agreement with singular and plural 

subjects; in present, past, and future; as 
active, transitive, and intransitive. 

4. Adjectives, qualifying and limiting; used as 

modifiers or attributes. 

5. Adverbs, of manner, time, and place; their 

relation to verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. 

6. Prepositions, as introducing phrases. 

7. Conjunctions. 

Method 

(a) Study of typical forms; oral analysis; analysis by 
diagrams; logical analysis of more difficult sen- 
tences in prose and poetry, to determine the larger 
subjects, predicates, objects, etc. 

(h) Sentence-building, to illustrate typical parts; enlarge- 
ment of sentences by addition of modifiers, etc. 

(f) Tests of construction by dictation and memory 
writing. 

(<;/) Correction of compositions by reference to model 
sentences and by analysis. 



42 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 

Sugfgfestions 

As in all grades, there should be daily exercises in dictation, 
memory, or composition writing. Most of the work should be 
brief and spontaneous, inspired by interest in the subject-matter. 
The complete composition to be written weekly should aim to de- 
velop and encourage readiness in writing and a love of expression. 
Criticism on the formal side should be subordinated. The monthly 
set of compositions to be criticised by the teacher should call for 
the application of the formal language-lessons of the grade. The 
grammar exercises should bear the brunt of the formal criticisms. 

Grade 7a 
L COMPOSITION AND LETTER-WRITING 

J. Subject-Matter* 

{a) Subjects of current interest in the city. 

(^) Subjects from the literary reading of the grade, as 
characters, events, descriptions. 

(r) Events in lives of Americans prominent as states- 
men, or as leaders in business life, during the 
period covered by course of study in history; his- 
torical subjects of importance in our national 
history. 

{d^ Subjects from the industrial and commercial geog- 
raphy of the grade. 

Method 

{a) Study of the subject-matter by reading, by examina- 
tion of illustrations, and by recitation or dis- 
cussion. 

Qf) Preparation of outlines from notes taken by pupils 
during reading and discussion. 

(c) Oral composition from outlines. 

{d^ Written composition or letter from outlines. 

{e) Criticism and correction. 

(j") Rewriting, when necessary. 



LANGUAGE-TEACHING 43 



n. MEANING, USE, AND SPELLING OF WORDS 

t« Subject-Matter. 

{a\ From reading-lessons of the grade. 
{V) From subjects of the course of study. 
(<:) From newspaper reports of current events. 
{d^ From pupils' compositions. 

Method 

(a) Study words in the text; discuss meaning and use, 
derivation and formation ; consult the dictionary ; 
follow plan of word-study as in previous grades; 
trace origin of common words to other languages, 
as Latin and German; compare synonyms as to 
meaning and use; compare words of similar mean- 
ing; compare words of opposite meaning. 

(h) Write from dictation and from memory. 

\c) Compare sentences to illustrate. 

(^) Incorporate words and phrases into conversation and 
compositions; study figures of speech, as, simile, 
metaphor, personification. 

m. GRAMMAR 
I. Sobject-Matter. 

{a) Typical sentences; simple, compound, and com- 
plex — 

1. Written on board by teacher. 

2. From language text-book. 

3. From reading-lessons, prose and verse. 

4. From compositions of the pupils. 

(h) Parts of sentences; subjects, simple and compound; 
predicates, simple and compound; objects, simple 
and compound; attributes, predicate nouns and 
adjectives; modifiers, words, phrases, clauses; 
parts of phrases and of clauses ; relation of clauses. 



44 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 

(f) Parts of speech — 

1. Nouns, proper, common, abstract; case; 

number; gender. 

2. Pronouns, personal, interrogative, relative; 

modifiers of gender; number; case. 

3. Verbs, regular, irregular; transitive, intransi- 

tive, neuter; active, passive; present, 
past, and future tense; all modes; par- 
ticiples. 

4. Adjectives, qualifying, limiting, numeral; 

modifications of degree and opposites. 

5. Adverbs, of manner, place, time, degree. 

6. Prepositions. 

7. Conjunctions. 

8. Interjections. 

Method 

{a) Study of typical forms; oral analysis; analysis by 
diagrams; logical analysis of more difficult sen- 
tences in prose and poetry, to determine the larger 
subjects, predicates, objects, etc. 

(b) Sentence-building, to illustrate typical parts ; enlarge- 
ment of sentences by addition of modifiers, etc. 

(f) Tests of construction by dictation and memory 
writing. 

{d) Correction of compositions by reference to model sen- 
tences and by analysis. 

Suggestions 

As in all grades, there should be daily exercises in dictation, 
reproduction from memory, or composition writing. Most of the 
work should be brief and spontaneous, inspired by interest in the 
subject-matter. The complete composition to be written weekly 
should aim to develop and encourage readiness in writing and a love 
of expression. The monthly set of compositions to be criticised 



LANG UAGE- TEACHING 45 

bv the" teacher should call for the application of the formaU^"" 
auacre^essons of the grade. Criticism on the formal side should 
be subordinated. The grammar exercises should bear the brunt ot 
the formal criticisms. There should be daily work on progressive 
models of form illustrating the construction of sentences and parts 
of sentences. 

Grade 7b 
I. COMPOSITION AND LETTER-WRITING 

J. Sobject-Mattef. 

(a) Events pf current interest found in general news. 

(b) Subjects from literary reading. 

{c) Topics from history, geography, and science. 
{d) Business correspondence. 



Method 

{a) Study of subject-matter, with note-taking ; discussion. 

{b) Preparation of outline for narrative, descriptive, and 
imaginative writing. 

(c) Writing of brief compositions on informative sub- 
jects, with special reference to the thought to be 
expressed. One complete essay, at least, should 
be written each month. 

{d) Criticism and writing. 



n. MEANING, USE, AND SPELLING OF WORDS 

J. Subject-Matter, 

{a) From reading-lessons of the grade. 

(b) From subjects of the course of study. 

(c) From newspaper reports of current events. 
{d) From pupils' compositions. 

{e) From text-book on language. 



46 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 



Method 

{a) Study words in the text; discuss meaning and use, 
derivation and formation-, consult the dictionary; 
continue word-study as in previous grades ; con- 
struct words j trace roots of English words to other 
languages, and make careful comparison of English 
and foreign languages ; compare synonyms as to 
meaning and use; compare words of similar mean- 
ing; compare words of opposite meaning. 

Oi\ Study figures of speech; as, hyperbole, apostrophe, 
allegory, metonymy. Pupils should copy in note- 
books or on charts, and commit to memory, good 
examples of figures of speech, when found in lit- 
erature. 

(c) Write from dictation and from memory. 

(^) Compare sentences to illustrate. 

{e) Incorporate words and phrases into conversation and 
compositions. 



m. GRAMMAR 
J. Subject-Matter. 

(a) Typical sentences; simple, compound, and complex — 

1. Written on board by teacher. 

2. From language text-book. 

3. From reading-lessons, prose and verse. 

4. From compositions of the pupils. 

(^) Parts of sentences; subjects, simple and compound; 
predicates, simple and compound; objects, simple 
and compound; attributes, predicate nouns and 
adjectives; modifiers, words, phrases, clauses; 
. parts of phrases and of clauses; relation of clauses; 
phrases and clauses used as subject, object, or 
attribute of sentence, 
(c) Parts of speech — 

I. Nouns, proper, common, abstract; case; 
number; gender. 



LANG UAGE- TEACHING 



47 



2. Pronouns, personal, interrogative, relative; 

modifiers of gender; number; case. 

3. Verbs, regular, irregular; transitive, intransi- 

tive, neuter; active, passive; complete 
tenses; complete modes; participles. 

4. Adjectives, qualifying, limiting, numeral; 

modifications of degree and opposites. 

5. Adverbs, of manner, place, time, degree. 

6. Prepositions. 

7. Conjunctions. 

8. Interjections. 

Method 

{a) Study of typical forms; oral analysis; analysis by 
diagrams; logical analysis of more difficult sen- 
tences in prose and poetry, to determine the larger 
subjects, predicates, objects, etc. 

{b) Sentence-building, to illustrate typical parts; enlarge- 
ment of sentences by addition of modifiers, etc. 

(f) Tests of construction by dictation and memory writing. 

(d) Correction of compositions by reference to model 
sentences and by analysis. 

{e) Selection of passages from literature to illustrate ap- 
plication of rules of syntax. 

Suggestions 

As in all grades, there should be daily exercises in dictation, 
reproduction from memory, or composition wanting. Most of the 
work should be brief and spontaneous, inspired by interest in the 
subject-matter. The complete composition to be written weekly 
should aim to develop and encourage readiness in writing and a love of 
expression. The monthly set of compositions to be criticised by the 
teacher should call for the application of the formal language-lessons 
of the grade. Criticism on the formal side should be subordinated. 
The grammar exercises should bear the brunt of the formal criticisms. 
There should be daily work on progressive models of form illustrat- 
ing the construction of sentences and parts of sentences. 



48 



PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 



The following scheme of study in word-building was prepared 
by a committee of principals. 



Grade 4a 



Prefixes 
re return 

semi semicircle 

ante antedate 

dis dishonest 



Suffixes 
y honesty 

er, or builder, collector 

age bondage 

ful truthful 



Grade 4b 



un unjust 

ad, ac, ag, etc. adjoin, accede 

con consent 

inter interrupt 

mis misjudge 



an, ian republican 

dom kingdom 

ent, ant president, attendant 

ly friendly 

ship clerkship 



Grade 5a 



a, ab, abs avert, absent 

sub suspend 

in inaction 

ex, e except, eject 

trans transfer 

anti antislavery 



less hopeless 

let ringlet 

en wooden 

al social 

fy certify 

ion protection 



Grade 5b 



de deduct 



circum circumscribe 

under underrate 

pre present 

pro protect 



able, ible blamable, contempti- 
ble 
ic, ical gigantic, cubical 
ate delegate 
ance, ancy ignorance, constancy 
ise, ize criticise, fertilize 



LANG UAGE- TEACHING 



49 







Grade 6a 






Review of all previous grades 


Prefixes 






Suffixes 


super 


superfine 




ery, ry 


scenery, pantry 


be 


benumb 




some 


gladsome 


bis, bi 


biped 




ness 


tenderness 


syn, syl, sym 


synopsis, 


sylla- 


hood 


childhood 




ble, sympathy 







Grade 6b 
Review of previous grades with the following roots 



cap, 


capt, cip, cept 




ced, 


cess, 




claud. 


claus, clud 

Grade 7a 




corp. 


corpo 


jac, ject 


diet 




leg, lect 


fact 


Grade 7t> 


frans, fract 


met. 


miss 


scrib 


mov. 


mot 


tract 


rupt 




tend, tens, or tent 



THE VARIOUS PHASES OF LAN- 
GUAGE-rEACHING 

By Sarah Louise Arnold 

Language has a double task to perform. It enables us to ex- 
press our own thoughts and feelings, and by its aid the thoughts 
and feelings of others are communicated to us. Training in lan- 
guage, therefore, involves two essential lines of work — teaching 
pupils to express their own thoughts, and training them to interpret 
the language of others. 

There are various means and methods by which this training 
may be accomplished. A clear recognition of the main purpose will 
enable the teacher to secure the right proportion of the different 
phases of study and practice which help to make up this complex 
training. Teaching in language may be as simple and definite as 
teaching in arithmetic, if the desired results are clearly compre- 
hended by the teacher, and lessons are assigned with a view to 
securing definite knowledge or special training. 

In discussing the courses of study in language, we must sepa- 
rate the two phases of the work, although in practice they can 
never be entirely distinct. The pupil, while learning to express 
himself more clearly, also gains in interpreting the language of 
others ; and a careful study of the words of another reacts upon his 
own power in the use of language. The two types of work 
really proceed hand in hand in a well-balanced course. 

Training in the expression of thought by means of language 



52 



PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 



necessarily assumes several different phases. Among these may be 
enumerated: first, getting thought to express; second, practice in 
free oral expression for the sake of facility; third, imitating the 
correct forms of expression in order that they may become hab- 
itual; fourth, exercises to increase the vocabulary (i) through gain- 
ing new ideas, and (2) through exercises which give practice in 
expressing these ideas, and therefore bring into use the new words; 
fifth, the development of taste through the study of pleasing and 
appropriate types of expression. All these phases are essential to 
proper training in oral expression. 

It is obvious that the essential element in the language-lesson 
is, that the child should have something to say. Much language- 
teaching is fruitless because this foundation is omitted. Every 
child comes to school with a certain outfit; he knows something, 
little or much. He has certain interests, certain tendencies, and, 
if he were entirely free to express himself in his own language, 
would have some facility in telling what he knows. It is essential 
that the teacher should know her pupils well enough to discover 
their individual fund of knowledge, because she must build upon 
this individual experience. 

The children are already prepared to talk about that which they 
know, but they cannot be left here; they must be led on to know 
more and better things. Therefore, the teacher must not merely 
know the individual experience of the children; but she must also 
be able to estimate the knowledge which is common to the class, 
" the average attainment," if we may use the term, so that she 
may be able to lead the class to a new and common experience 
which can be added to the old. For example, the children by the 
seashore are ready to talk about the sea, but do not know of the 
mountains. The children in the mountain district know of the 
life of the farmer, of the woodsman, of the hunter, but are not 
familiar with the life of the fisherman. The child in the city is 



THE VARIOUS PHASES OF LANGUAGE-TEACHING 53 

familiar with the streets, the brick pavement, the towering build- 
ings, the shops, the fire-alarm, the police-patrol, but has little 
notion of trees and fields, of brooks and birds. 

The child's vocabulary is that which expresses his experience; 
it is a key to his experience. Increase and modification of the 
vocabulary mean introduction of a new experience. Observation- 
lessons, field-lessons, study of pictures, story-telling, conversations 
about familiar places and things — all these disclose the child's pres- 
ent fund of knowledge, and lead him into a wider field. He visits 
the blacksmith's shop, and adds to his vocabulary the words which 
express the new ideas which he has gained. A ride into the coun- 
try ; a trip across the ferry ; a visit to the baker ; observation of the 
canary, the English sparrow, or the dove; a lesson upon the fruits 
or vegetables displayed in the market; the study of the picture 
which portrays another type of life than his own — these exercises, 
familiar in every school under the name of " object-lessons, " are 
really the essential language-lessons. It is idle to expect the chil- 
dren to understand the words of the reading-book, the geography, 
or the history, which describe a foreign experience, until they have 
been led by such steps as these into the larger world which is por- 
trayed for them in these pages. 

Similar objective teaching is also essential to the interpretation 
of the language of another. It should not be forgotten that the 
child interprets and understands that which, in some degree, is akin 
to his own experience. If he has never seen snow or ice, he will 
hardly understand the description of a glacier. If he has spent his 
little life cooped up in a city street, and hemmed in by brick walls, 
he will have little conception of the green meadows, the fertile 
valleys, or the wide prairies which the poet paints, or which the 
simpler pages of his geography describe. The art of interpretation, 
as well as the art of expression, requires us to lead the children to 
new knowledge through widening their experience. 



54 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 

There is this difference, however, between the two phases of 
the work. In one, the object appeals to the child, and presents to 
him the new idea which demands expression. The order is, ob- 
ject, then word. In the other, the word appears before him with 
its mystic meaning, and the object is called into his experience in 
order that he may understand the word. We say that we explain 
the meaning of the word, the sentence, or the paragraph, when we 
tell the child what it means to us. We really explain, only when 
we introduce into his experience the unfamiliar idea for which the 
word stands. This objective teaching is indispensable as an ele- 
ment of language-training; and where the experience of the child 
is limited, and the home teaching has been meagre, this element 
must predominate in the primary language course. In order to 
secure even the mastery of the word, the idea must be made a part 
of the experience of the child. It is the word which is continually 
employed which is remembered. The form that is necessarily used 
in the expression of the child's own thought becomes his habitual 
tool. The presentation of new thoughts and new things should 
go hand in hand with the presentation of new words. The child 
should not be expected to master a vocabulary, without being led 
to the experience which necessitates the use of this vocabulary. 

The essential element — the something to say — having been 
secured, facility in expression is the next desideratum. This is 
secured through practice under such conditions as will lead to con- 
fidence and ease. The desire to say something should be present 
in this exercise. The teacher's work in this phase of her teaching 
is to provide the occasion for expression and to arouse the child's 
desire to express his thought. These exercises may be associated 
with the first lessons which have been described. The recital of 
past experience, the description of an object which is present dur- 
ing the exercise, the study of a picture, story-telling — all these 
afford opportunity for developing ease and readiness in expression. 



THE VARIOUS PHASES OF LANGUAGE-TEACHING 55 

It should be remembered that the exercise is for the purpose of 
training the children in expression, and that the teacher should, 
therefore, do as little talking as possible; the monopoly of the 
practice being given to the child. Unfortunately the opposite ten- 
dency is too common in our schools. As a rule, talking is mo- 
nopolized by the teachers rather than by the children. This is fatal 
to development of language-power from the child's side. It is the 
one w^ho talks, not the one who listens, that gains facility in 
expression. 

While freedom in expression may be facilitated by simple con- 
versational exercises, the practice should not be limited to mere 
conversation. Definite and logical questions written upon the 
board, or upon individual cards, should suggest to the child the 
order of recitation ; and he should be required to recite or tell his 
story without assistance from the teacher, depending mainly upon 
the outline. The habit of complete and orderly narration and 
description may thus be encouraged. This habit, formed in the 
lower grades, will secure the facility which is too often lacking in 
the "original compositions" of the grammar and high school. 
The place for developing this power is in the oral exercises of the 
lower grades. 

The development of correct habits of speech is the third end to 
be secured in language-teaching. Correctness in speech is secured 
purely by imitation. The child repeats the form of expression 
which he has been accustomed to hear. Wrong forms are fixed in 
this way as inevitably as the right ones. The ordinary pupils in 
our public schools have become accustomed to both right and 
wrong fashions of speech. Here, again, the teacher must study 
the children. She will waste no time or energy in fixing habits 
which are already secured, or undoing those which really do not 
exist, if, instead of consulting the pages of a text-book for incor- 
rect expressions, she will make note of those which are habitual 



56 ' PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 

with her pupils. Armed with this knowledge, she will direct her 
attention to fixing the forms of speech which the children have not 
yet mastered. There is one method, and one alone, which must 
be followed in this training: the correct form must be set before 
the children as a pattern, and innumerable exercises must be pro- 
vided in which the children are obliged to repeat this form. In 
a word, the teacher presents the pattern and occasions for practice. 
These exercises will be effective in proportion as they are natural 
and simple. If the child finds it necessary to use the correct form 
in the expression of his own thought, he will readily master it. 
If, on the other hand, this exercise is confined to text-book drill in 
the expression of other people's thoughts, his progress will be slow 
and difficult. Oral games which involve the repetition of a correct 
form of speech are most effective in primary grades, and even in 
the fourth and fifth years. A game which necessitates the repetition 
of the correct form a hundred times over is much more effective 
than the mechanical filling of blanks. 

The ordinary errors of speech are not so manifold as is com- 
monly supposed. They are confined to a few flagrant sins of 
commission — failure to make the verb agree with its subject (an 
error which is liable to occur in the third person singular of the 
present tense and very frequently with the auxiliaries ;V, are^ and 
were) ; mistakes in the use of the tense form of verbs (liable to 
occur only with a few strong verbs in common use); the double 
negative; the case form of the pronouns. Against these we must 
make war; but the correction of the minor mistakes in English we 
may leave until the pupil comes to the years of discretion, when 
the study of English grammar and rhetoric is introduced. If we 
overcome these common faults in the lower grades, we shall do 
well; and we shall readily overcome them, if we confine our work 
to correction of the graver faults. Point out the errors, and pre- 
sent the correct fashion. Afford natural and simple occasions for 



THE VARIOm PHASES OF LANGUAGE-TEACHINGS 57 

correcting the common errors, brighten the practice with occasional 
games, and the work is done. 

The fixing of the correct form in written work must proceed on 
the same principle and along the same lines. It presents more 
difficulties, because spelling, punctuation, capitalization, and man- 
agement of pen, paper, and ink — all must be remembered by the 
child. It is wise, therefore, to secure some facility in oral expres- 
sion before the added difficulty of writing is presented, and to 
acquire the mastery of the customs of writing by degrees, instead 
of imposing many tasks at once. The presentation of a correct 
pattern, and abundant practice in copying, ought to result in good 
written work; but the pupil's active cooperation in the work 
should be secured first of all. Show him that it is worth while to 
know how to write a letter; that no one can communicate his 
thoughts to an absent friend without this power; that certain cus- 
toms are followed in writing, for the sake of convenience; that 
every one who writes learns to follow these customs; that a little 
careful practice will make him master of these forms, so that he 
need not think about them in writing any more than he thinks 
when he lifts his hat in greeti'ng a friend. Having aroused his 
desire to do the work, having shown him that the practice is really 
of use to him, then secure earnest attention and accurate copying. 
A correct pattern, accurate seeing, a perfect copy, and patient prac- 
tice — these are the essential elements. By such means, children 
in the first grade should master the use of the capital at the begin- 
ning of a sentence, of the period at the end, and of the interroga- 
tion-point. The second grade should add the use of the apostrophe 
in contractions and perhaps in singular possessives, of capitals in 
proper names, and the beginning of letter-writing in easy informal 
notes. The third grade should continue the practice with capitals, 
periods, interrogation-points, apostrophe, and simple, childlike, 
friendly letters written in imitation of a model, and neatly ad- 



58 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 

dressed. The use of the quotation-mark, even, in unbroken quota, 
tions, may be introduced. In the fourth grade the use of the text- 
book gathers together and reviews the practice of the primary 
grades, increases letter-writing, calls for original paragraphs and 
the writing of poems from memory, and fixes the use of the quota- 
tion-mark. The use of the exclamation-point may be added in the 
fifth grade, and the use of the comma in series; the study of the 
paragraph may begin; and stories or descriptions may be written 
from outline. 

Success in the work will depend not so much upon the quantity 
of the practice as upon its character. If the pupil's interest is 
awakened, and the habits of painstaking, care, and attentive work 
are developed, all will go well. 

More can be gained by correcting one point at a time than by 
covering the pupil's page with blue pencil-marks so that the orig- 
inal form is obscured, and setting the pupil to copy corrections 
which the teacher has made. The teacher who leads the child to 
correct a single error by his own efFort has done more for him 
than if she had marked and corrected a hundred mistakes herself. 
He must participate in the work, recognize the fault, and learn to 
apply the remedy. If we work for one thing at a time, we shall 
secure something. We never do master twenty things at once. 

The work in language thus far outlined has included the 
thought-getting, the increase of vocabulary, the development of 
correct habits of speech and of writing, and there is left but one 
thing more to be presented; that is, the development of taste in 
the choice of words and in the fashion of expression. 

Having something to say, and speaking with all due reference 
to the rules of grammar, we may yet say nothing which is pleasing 
to our hearers. A sentence of Shakespeare's, a proverb of com- 
mon speech, is handed down from generation to generation, simply 
because it says something worth while and in the best possible 



THE VARIOVS PHASES OF LANGUAGE-TEACHING 



S9 



way. Our speech betrayeth us. It not only carries our message 
to our hearers, but it tells them something of the thoughts we think 
and the atmosphere in which we live. Culture, or the lack of it, 
is betokened by the use of language more readily than in any other 
way. How often our eyes have admired until our ears have heard 
the uncouth word or the crude expression ! If it is true that the 
teacher's work in reading is not merely to teach the child to read, 
but to love to read good books, then it is also true that her work 
in language should be, not merely to teach the child to speak cor- 
rectly and to have something to say, but to express his thoughts in 
the most fitting language and to appreciate and enjoy that which is 
most beautiful in expression. The child who instinctively turns 
to " Snowbound," " The Ancient Mariner," or a play of Shake- 
speare's, if you please, instead of to the dime novel, has in his pos- 
session a gift which the schools may well be proud to bestow. His 
life is enriched by his love of the beautiful and the good. It is the 
task and the privilege of the teacher of language, rather the teacher 
of children, to lead them to love the fitting expression and the 
beautiful thought. The development of taste in language means 
the development of the child; for his words express him. 

As an aid to such development, exercises which familiarize the 
children with good literature should accompany the more formal 
work in language. Good stories, fables, poems, should be read to 
the children, and made the subject of conversation ; should be 
recited by them; should appear again and again in reading-lesson 
and in language-lesson, until they are able to read good books for 
themselves. Then good books should be placed within their reach, 
and opportunity for reading should be afforded, in order that they 
may love good literature, and instinctively choose it, by the time 
they are left to independent choice. The atmosphere of good 
books should be about them. The stories which are the heritage 
of the world should be shared by them. We shall know that our 



6o PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 

work has been effective when allusions to the story or the poem, 
or to chance phrases from the book which has just been read, 
appear in the conversation of the children. This will mean, not 
simply that words have been added to their vocabulary, but that 
their thoughts have grown, and their taste as well. 

These are the phases of language-teaching which must appear 
in every well-ordered course of study. For device and detail, the 
teacher should be left absolutely independent, so long as she does 
not transgress the main principle of her art. " Shall she teach 
this poem, or that ? " That depends upon the history of her class, 
upon her own interest, taste, or liking. There are so many good 
things, she may well be left free to choose among them, so long 
as she gives the children material suited to them, and leads them 
by definite and thoughtful steps along the right path. 

No one part of this training can be substituted for another. 
We cannot say, " I will teach words instead of things," and thus 
succeed in teaching words. We cannot say, " I will teach form 
without reference to the child's experience," for the form will not 
be mastered. Even the formal one will be wanting, if the work is 
thus dismembered. We cannot say, " I will secure facility in ex- 
pression, and disregard form " ; customs cannot be thus disregarded 
in the social world. The training in language is effective only 
when the various types here presented appear in their right propor- 
tion in the training of the pupils. The work is indeed complex, 
for it deals with the varied experience of the life of the child ; but 
it is more than a work with words. Our speech betrayeth us. 
We must not forget that we are teaching, not language, but chil- 
dren. 



ANALYSIS OF COURSE IN SEN- 
TENCE-SrUDT AND GRAMMAR 
FOR GRADED SCHOOLS* 

By Joseph S. Taylor, Pd.D., 

Principal P. S. ig. New Tort City {Manhattan) 

5a— Fifth Year, First Half 

Sentence-Study — Structure of easy sentences ; subject, predicate, 

and object of the sentence ; the chief word or words 

of each part. — By-Laws, Sec. 77 

Sentences 

I. What a sentence can do. 

(a) Declare. — The door is locked (declarative). 

(b) Command. — Ring the bell (imperative). 

(c) Ask. — Did you read the letter (interrogative) ? 

(d) Exclaim. — How beautiful this poem is (exclam- 

atory) ! 
Drill on the above. Give one form of sentence; let children 
convert it into other forms until the distinction is well understood 
and firmly fixed. 

* This article is an exposition of the course of study now in use in the 
Boroughs of Manhattan and the Bronx, New York City ; but it is hoped that 
teachers outside of these boroughs may find in it material equally valuable to 
themselves. All rights reserved. Copyright, 1899, by Joseph S. Taylor. 



62 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 

2. Two essential parts : 

{a) Subject. — Something to tell or ask or exclaim 

about. 
{b) Predicate. — Something told, asked, or com- 
manded. Much drill on this twofold divi- 
sion. 
Analytic Exercises: Hyde, pp.34, 35;* name subjects 

and predicates in reader. 
Synthetic Exercises: Give subject, pupil supply predi- 
cate; give predicate, pupil supply subject. 

3. Chief word of subject = Noun, 

{a) Drill on nouns: common and proper. Rule 
for capital. 

(b) Exercises: Hyde, pp. 6, 7. 

(c) From reader make lists of common and proper 

nouns. 
(^) Write sentences containing common and proper 
nouns. 

4. Chief word of predicate = Verb. 

Drill on verbs : 

(a) Exercises : Hyde, pp. 34, 35. 
(/>) Exercises in reader, name verbs, 
(f) Give verbs, make sentences. 
(^) Give nouns, supply verbs. 

(i) Kinds of verbs : transitive and intransitive. 
Exercises: Hyde, pp. 36, 37. 

5. Object = Noun. 

Exercises on objects: reader; written. 

* The book referred to in this article is Practical Lessons in the Use of Eng- 
lish. Second Book. By Mary P. Hyde. D. C. Heath & Co. 1892. It is not 
intended that the volume be in the hands of children. Reference is made to it 
here because if teachers use its lessons as models of presentation, they will be saved 
from the folly of teaching grammar by the method of definition and " memoriter " 
recitation, into which teachers of grammar are so prone to slip. 



SENTENCE-STUDT AND GRAMMAR (,} 

6. Active and passive forms of sentences. 

Exercises: Hyde, 37-39. 

7. Simple and compound sentences. 

Exercises: Hyde, 69—71. 
Drill thoroughly on all of the preceding, using all kinds of sen- 
tences; to wit, declarative, imperative, interrogative, exclamatory, 
active, passive; prose, poetry; w^ritten, oral. 

5b— Fifth Year, Second Half 

Sentence-Study — Structure of easy sentences ; subject, predicate, 

and attribute of sentence; the chief word or words of 

each part and their modifiers. — By-Laws, Sec. 77. 

J. Review 5a. 

1. What a sentence is. 

2. What a sentence does: declares, asks, commands, 

exclaims. 

3. Two essential parts : subj. ; pred. 

4. Chief word of subj. = noun: common; proper. 

5. Chief word of pred. = verb: transitive; intransitive. 

6. Object = noun. 

7. Active and passive forms. 

2. New. 

1. Modifiers of nouns = Adjectives. Exercises: 

Hyde, 23-26. 

{a) Oral and written drill on sentences with adjec- 
tive modifiers of subject and object. 
{h) Comparison of adjectives. Hyde, 27—29. 

2. Adjectives that complete predicates = Adjective 

Attributes. 

{a) Hyde, 39, 40 ; drill, oral and written ; reader. 
Supply adjectives, use them as att. ; supply 
predicate with att., give subject, etc. 



64 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 

3. Nouns that complete predicates = Noun Attributes. 

(a) Drill as in preceding. Hyde, 40, 41. 

4. Adverbs: Hyde, 47-49. 

(«) Drill: find in reader; construct sentences. 
(h) Affirmative and negative. Hyde, 50. 
(c) What adverbs modify : verbs^ adj., adv. 
Drill. 

5. Analysis of sentences embodying all the preceding: 

subj., pred., obj., att., adj. and adv. modifiers. 
Use all kinds of sentences: dec, int., imp., ex- 
clam. 
Abundance of drill and thorough review. 

6a— Sixth Year, First Half 

Sentence-Study — Structure and classification of easy sentences; 
the parts of speech completed. — By-Laws, Sec. 77. 

J. Review 5a and 5b. 

1. What a sentence is. 

2. What it does: declares, asks, commands, exclaims. 

3. Two essential parts : subj.; pred. 

4. Chief word of subj. = noun : common ; proper. 

5. Chief word of pred. = verb: transitive; intransitive. 

6. Object = noun. 

7. Active and passive forms. 

8. Modifiers of nouns = adjectives: comparison. 

(fl) Adjectives that complete a pred. = adj. attri- 
butes. 
(^) Nouns that complete a pred. = noun attributes. 

9. Adverbs: affirmative; negative. 

(a) What adverbs modify: verbs, adj., adv. 
10. Simple and compound sentences. 



SENTENCE-STUDT AND GRAMMAR 65 

II. Analysis of sentences embodying all the preceding: 
subj., pred., obj., att., adj., and adv. mod.; all 
kinds of sentences — dec, int., imp., exclam. 

2. New, 

1. Articles — the, an, a. 

2. Prepositions. Hyde, 63. 

3. Conjunctions. Hyde, 66. 

4. Interjections. Hyde, 68. 

5. Pronouns (personal). Hyde, 22, 23. 

(a) Drill, oral and written; analytic, synthetic. 

6. Singular and plural of nouns. Hyde, 74. 

7. Possessive of nouns. Hyde, 75. 

8. Masculine and feminine of nouns. Hyde, 78. 

9. Gender forms of pronouns. Hyde, 83. 

10. Nominative forms of pronouns. Hyde, 85. 

11. Objective forms of pronouns. Hyde, 86. 

12. Possessive forms of pronouns. Hyde, 87. 

13. Adjective pronouns. Hyde, 89. 

{a) Drill: Let pupils learn complete list; make it 
very plain that these words may be adjectives 
or pronouns. 

14. Regular and irregular verbs. Hyde, 102. 

15. Participles. Hyde, 103. 

16. Infinitives. Hyde, 139. 

17. Relative pronouns. Hyde, 146. 

18. Interrogative pronouns. Hyde, 149. 

19. Phrases. Hyde, 140-143; 291 +. 

20. Clauses. Hyde, 145; 301 +. 

21. Complex sentences. Hyde, 305. 

Analysis of sentences ; also construction of original 
sentences; introducing each new feature as it is 
taught. 



66 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 

6b — ^Sfxth Year, Second Half 

English Grammar (with text-book) — Analysis and classification 
of easy sentences; classification of the parts of 
speech. — By-Laws, Sec. 77. 

J. Review 5a, 5b, and 6a. 

1. The sentence: simple, compound, complex; dec, 

int., imp., exc. 

2. Two essential parts: subj. ; pred. 

3. Chief word of subj. = noun: common; proper. 

4. Chief word of pred. = verb : trans. ; intrans. 

5. Object = noun. 

6. Active and passive forms of verbs. 

7. Modifiers of nouns = adjectives. 

(«) Comparison. 

8. Words that complete pred. 

(a) Adjective attributes. 
(h) Noun attributes. 

9. Adverbs. 

(a) Affirmative and negative. 

(Zi) What adv. modify: verbs, adj., adv. 

10. Simple and compound sentences. 

11. Analysis of sentences embodying all the preceding: 

subj., pred., obj., att., adj., and adv. modifiers, 
all kinds of sentences: dec, int., imp., exc. 

12. Articles, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections. 

13. Personal pronouns. 

14. Singular and plural nouns. 

15. Possessive of nouns. 

16. Masculine and feminine of nouns. 

1 7 . Gender forms of pronouns. 

18. Nominative forms of pronouns. 

!LofC. 



SENTENCE-STUDT AND GRAMMAR 67 

19. Objective forms of pronouns. 

20. Possessive forms of pronouns. 

21. Adjective pronouns (or pron. adj.): complete list. 

22. Regular and irregular verbs. 

23. Participles, infinitives. 

24. Relative and interrogative pronouns. 

25. Phrases and clauses. 

26. Complex sentences. 

27. Analysis of sentences embodying above. 



2. New. 



1. Nouns: proper, common = verbal, abstract, collective. 

{a) Drill on classification of nouns in reader. 

(^) Case forms and rules that apply to subject, in- 
dependent, possessive, object of trans, verb 
and prep. 

2. Pronouns : personal, relative, interrogative. 

(a) A complete list of each class. 
(y) As is a relative vv^hen it follovv^s such^ many., or same. 
(i) Take such as you like. 

(2) Take as many as you like. 

(3) These are the same as yours rare!, 
(f) Arrange w^ith number, gender, and case forms 

= declension . 

{d^ Give also compound forms of each pronoun. 

{e) Agreement of pronoun with antecedent in gen- 
der, person, number, 

(i) Much drill on above, oral and written. 

3. Adjectives: common, proper, numeral, pronominal, 

participial, compound (what these classes are will 

depend upon the text-book employed). 

{a) List of each kind. 

{h) Drill on classification, oral and written. 



68 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 

(c) Comparison of classes that admit comparison: 
two methods. 

4. Adverbs: time, place, degree, manner. 

(a) Short list of each. 

(^) Comparison of adverbs. 

Drill. 

5. Verbs: (a"^ As to form = reg., irreg., red., defec. ; 

(^) as to use = act. -trans., act.-intrans., passive, 
neuter (here again the classes will vary with differ- 
ent authors). • 

(i) Much drill; ofal and written. 

(2) Number of verb ; person of verb. 

(3) Agreement of verb with subject. 

6. Participles (great variation is found in the classifica- 

tion of various authors ; hardly two agree) : 

Active Passive 

Present, striking, being struck. 

Past, struck. 

Past perfect, having struck, having been struck. 
{a) Note that the past has no active. 
(^) Note that intransitive verbs can have no passive 
participles, because only transitive verbs can 
be passive. 
(<r) Drill on writing and naming participles of many 
verbs until the subject is thoroughly under- 
stood. 
(^/) Use of participles as nouns and adj. ; as subj., 

obj., att., etc. 
Drill. 

7. Conjunctions: coordinate, subordinate. 

{a) Show that coordinates join members of com- 
pound sentences. 



SENTENCE-STUDT AND GRAMMAR 69 

{b^ Show that subordinates join members of com- 
plex sentences. 
{c) Lists of each ; drill. 

8. Prepositions : list. 

9. Phrases: (a) as to form: prep., inf., part.; (b) as to 

use: subj., obj., adj., att., adv., explan., ind. 
Drill on writing and recognizing. 

10. Clauses: subj., obj., att., adv., explan., ind. Drill. 

11. Pupils to be trained to say all they know of a sen- 

tence or word without being questioned. 

7a — Seventh Year, First Half 

English Grammar — Analysis and classification of simple, com- 
pound, and complex sentences; classification and modi- 
fication of the parts of speech ; the rules of syntax 
in connection with the criticism and correction 
of compositions. — By-Laws, Sec. 77. 

1. Review 5a, 5b, 6a, 6b. 

1. The sentence: classes as to form, 3; as to use, 4. 

2. Two essential parts: subj., pred. 

3. Chief word subj. = noun: classification of nouns. 

4. Chief word of pred. = verb : classification of verbs : 

{a) As to form, 4; as to use, 4. 
(^) Agreement of verbs. 

5. Object = noun or pronoun; word, phrase, or clause. 

6. Modifiers of nouns = adj. -word, phrase, clause. 

(a) Adj. att. (to complete pred.). 

7. Nouns that complete pred. = noun. att. 

8. Adverbs: classes, 4; comparison. 

9. Articles, prepositions, conjunctions (2 classes); in- 

terjec. 



70 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 

10. Pronouns: 3 classes; list of each, with declension 

and compounds (see 6b on " as "). 
{a) Number, gender, and case forms. 
(Ji) Agreement. 

11. Number, gender, and case of nouns. 

12. Participles: complete classification (see 6b); used as 

nouns and adjectives; subj., obj., att., etc. 

13. Infinitives. 

14. Phrases: 7 kinds. 

15. Clauses: 7 kinds. 

16. Adjectives: 6 classes; lists; comparison. 

17. Prepositions: list. 

18. Articles. 

19. Conjunctions: 2 kinds = coordinate; subordinate. 

Pupils trained to tell all that they know of a word 
or sentence without being questioned. 
2. New. 

1. Nouns: classification. 

(<?) Modifications. 

(i) Gender, 3; dif. between gender and 
sex ; 3 ways of indicating sex. 
Drill. 

(2) Person, 3. 

(3) Number, 2; rules for forming plural. 
Drill. 

(4) Case, 3 ; declension. 

2. Adjectives : review classes and comp. ; rules for comp. 

3. Pronouns: review classes and lists. 

(«) Modifications = gender, person, number, case. 
(^) Declension; compounds (review). 

4. Verbs: review classes. 

(a) Modifications = mood, tense, person, number. 



SENTENCE-STUDT AND GRAMMAR 



71 



(^) Conjugation. 
(<r) List of irregular verbs. 

(^) Drill on progressive, passive, negative, and in- 
terrogative forms of conjugation. 
{e) Drill on synopsis of verb forms. 

5. Review of participles and infinitives : classes and useSc 

6. Adverbs: review classes, lists, comparison. 

7. Conjunctions : review classes and lists. 

8. Prepositions: extend list. 

9. Interjections. 

10. Rules of Syntax : 

(a) Relation. 

(hi) Agreement. 

(f) Government. — Explain these terms. 

11. Parsing; analysis of all kinds of sentences. 

12. Construction of sentences of all kinds. 

7b — Seventh Year, Second Half 

English Grammar — The analysis and synthesis of simple, com- 
plex, and compound sentences j the classification and modi- 
fication of the parts of speech completed; the rules of 
syntax in connection with selected passages from 
the reading of the grade. — By-Laws, Sec. 77. 

In general the work of this grade is a review of the 7a grade, 
with more attention to detail, and a consideration of the more fre- 
quent idiomatic forms of expression, many of which embody 
troublesome exceptions to the rules of syntax and etymology. 
The course of grammar, as laid down in an ordinary text-book, 
should be completed. 

There is, however, a difference in the directions of the two 
grades of the seventh year, which cannot be regarded as acciden- 



APh 



•72 PRACTICAL SCHOOL PROBLEMS 

tal. In 7a the rules of syntax are to be taught " in connection 
with the criticism and correction of compositions," while in 7b 
the same rules are considered in relation to " selected passages from 
the reading of the grade." While this is an apparent violation of 
the pedagogical order, which demands analysis before synthesis, it 
is not to be assumed that either method is to be used to the exclu- 
sion of the other. In the grammatical work of all the grades, the 
concrete examples of the rule are shown first; then the pupil is 
asked to find other examples in the reading of the grade; and 
finally he is encouraged to embody what he has learned into his 
own compositions. To stop with mere analysis in any case is to 
make your instruction a matter of memory; the pedagogic circle 
is incomplete unless the pupil be required immediately to put his 
knowledge to the test in synthetic work. This is only another 
way of saying that impression and expression must go hand in hand. 

FORMS OF PARSING AND ANALYSIS 

The mere forms of parsing and analysis are in one respect in- 
significant in comparison with the processes themselves. Some- 
times they become, however, very important, chiefly in a harmful 
way. If the pupil is required to bestow a large amount of con- 
sciousness upon the form of his thought, the vigor of the thought 
itself will suffer in proportion. Let a child say what he knows 
about a sentence in his own way. A recitation ceases to be a 
vehicle of self-expression if it has imposed upon it forms which 
embarrass the pupil. 

In written parsing and analysis, however, some set form is 
demanded. This should be as simple and direct as possible, and 
uniform in all the grades. Otherwise much time will inevitably 
be wasted on forms which should be devoted to the study oi grammar. 



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